The Rebirth Of African Civilization Pdf To Word

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Circular cromlech at Nabta Three types of calendars can be found in Africa: lunar, solar, and stellar. Most African calendars are a combination of the three.

African calendars include the,,,,,,,,,, and. Western desert of Egypt [ ] A stone circle located in the basin may be one of the world's oldest known devices. Built by the ancient Nubians about 4800 BCE, the device may have approximately marked the.

Nile Valley [ ] Since the first modern measurements of the precise cardinal orientations of the Egyptian pyramids were taken by, various astronomical methods have been proposed as to how these orientations were originally established. Ancient Egyptians may have observed, for example, the positions of two stars in the / which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a plumb bob was used to ascertain where North lay. The deviations from true North using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction of the pyramids. Egyptians were the first to develop a 365-day, 12 month calendar. It was a stellar calendar, created by observing the stars.

During the 12th century, the astrolabic quadrant was invented in Egypt. The Sahel [ ] Based on the translation of 14 Timbuktu manuscripts, the following points can be made about Timbuktu astronomical science during the 12th-16th centuries: • They made use of the. • Generally speaking, they had a view of the solar system. • Diagrams of planets and orbits made use of complex mathematical calculations.

• Scientists developed an algorithm that accurately oriented to. • They recorded astronomical events, including a meteor shower in August 1583. At this time, Mali also had a number of astronomers including the emperor and scientist. Turkana Basin [ ] Megalithic 'pillar sites,' known as ',' date to as early as 5,000 years ago and can be found surrounding in Kenya. Although somewhat controversial today, initial interpretations suggested that they were used by speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. South Africa [ ] Today, has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community. It hosts the, the largest optical telescope in the southern hemisphere.

Is currently building the Karoo Array Telescope as a pathfinder for the $20 billion project. Is a finalist, with Australia, to be the host of the SKA. Mathematics [ ] Central and Southern Africa [ ] The from the mountains between and may be the oldest known.

[ ] It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a 's. The is a from the dated to the era, about 18,000 to 20,000 BCE. It is also a baboon's fibula, with a sharp piece of quartz affixed to one end, perhaps for engraving or writing. It was first thought to be a, as it has a series of carved in three columns running the length of the tool, but some scientists have suggested that the groupings of notches indicate a mathematical understanding that goes beyond counting. Various functions for the bone have been proposed: it may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation, a six-month lunar calendar, or it may have been made by a woman keeping track of her menstrual cycle. Nile Valley [ ] By the predynastic period in Egypt, people had fully developed a. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor and grain.

Texts such as the and the show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, circles and even spheres. [ ] They understood basic concepts of and, and could solve simple sets of. ​ 1⁄ 2 in was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, had to be written as the sum of several fractions.

For example, the fraction two-fifths was resolved into the sum of one-third + one-fifteenth; this was facilitated by standard tables of values. Some, however, were written with a special glyph; the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right. Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. They were able to estimate the by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: Area ≈ [(​ 8⁄ 9)D] 2 = (​ 256⁄ 81)r 2 ≈ 3.16r 2, a reasonable approximation of the formula r 2. The seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions, including the, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.

Based on engraved plans of Meroitic King 's pyramids, Nubians had a sophisticated understanding of mathematics and an appreciation of the harmonic ratio. The engraved plans is indicative of much to be revealed about Nubian mathematics. The Sahel [ ] All of the mathematical learning of the Islamic world during the medieval period was available and advanced by Timbuktu scholars: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Other African traditions [ ] One of the major achievements found in Africa was the advance knowledge of geometry and mathematics. The knowledge of geometry can be found in a wide aspect of African life from art, social design structures, architecture, to games, trade, and divination systems. With the discovery of fractal mathematics in widespread use in Africa, Ron Eglash had this to say, 'We used to think of mathematics as a kind of ladder that you climb, and we would think of counting systems – one plus one equals two – as the first step and simple shapes as the second step. Recent mathematical developments like fractal geometry represented the top of the ladder in most Western thinking.

But it's much more useful to think about the development of mathematics as a kind of branching structure and that what blossomed very late on European branches might have bloomed much earlier on the limbs of others. When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganized and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn't even discovered yet.'

The was also widely known through Africa before it was known throughout much of the world. It has been theorized that it could have influenced Western, which would lead to the development of the digital computer. Metallurgy [ ]. Further information: Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, like, remained famous long after their deaths. Remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists. Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or 'House of Life' institution, most notably those headquartered in during the New Kingdom and at and in the Late period.

Show of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments. Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while opium was used to relieve pain. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until he died.

Around 800, the first psychiatric hospital and insane asylum in Egypt was built by Muslim physicians in Cairo. Around 1100, the ventilator is invented in Egypt. In 1285, the largest hospital of the Middle Ages and pre-modern era was built in Cairo, Egypt, by Sultan Qalaun al-Mansur.

Treatment was given for free to patients of all backgrounds, regardless of gender, ethnicity or income. Was being used by Nubians, based on bone remains between 350 AD and 550 AD. The antibiotic was in wide commercial use only in the mid 20th century. The theory is earthen jars containing grain used for making beer contained the bacterium, which produced tetracycline. Although Nubians were not aware of tetracycline, they could have noticed people fared better by drinking beer. According to Charlie Bamforth, a professor of biochemistry and brewing science at the University of California, Davis, said 'They must have consumed it because it was rather tastier than the grain from which it was derived. They would have noticed people fared better by consuming this product than they were just consuming the grain itself.'

Successful Caesarean section performed by indigenous healers in Kahura,, as observed by R. Felkin in 1879 East Africa [ ] European travelers in the of ( and ) during the 19th century observed being performed on a regular basis. The expectant mother was normally anesthetized with banana wine, and herbal mixtures were used to encourage healing. From the well-developed nature of the procedures employed, European observers concluded that they had been employed for some time. South Africa [ ] A South African,, developed a vaccine against in 1937. Developed the theoretical underpinnings of CT scanning and co-invented the CT-scanner.

The first human-to-human heart transplant was performed by South African cardiac surgeon at in December 1967. During the 1960s, South African developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques, in which a sequence of two-dimensional images of crystals taken from different angles are combined to produce three-dimensional images of the target.

Agriculture [ ] Northern Africa and the Nile Valley [ ]. Donkey possibly domesticated in the Nile Valley or Horn of Africa Archaeologists have long debated whether or not the independent domestication of cattle occurred in Africa as well as the Near East and Indus Valley. Possible remains of domesticated cattle were identified in the Western Desert of Egypt at the sites of and and were dated to c. 9500-8000 BP, but those identifications have been questioned. Genetic evidence suggests that cattle were most likely introduced from Southwest Asia, and that there may have been some later breeding with wild in northern Africa. Genetic evidence also indicates that donkeys were domesticated from the.

Archaeologists have found donkey burials in early Dynastic contexts dating to ~5000 BP at, Middle Egypt, and examination of the bones shows that they were used as beasts of burden. ( Gossypium herbaceum Linnaeus) may have been domesticated 5000 BCE in eastern near the Middle Nile Basin region, where cotton cloth was being produced. Ethiopia [ ] Ethiopians, particularly the, were the first to have discovered and recognized the energizing effect of the bean plant. Cotton possibly domesticated 5000 BCE in Sudan is believed to have originated in Ethiopia between 4000 and 1000 BCE.

Genetic evidence points to E. Pilosa as the most likely wild ancestor. ( Guizotia abyssinica) and ( E. Ventricosum) are two other plants domesticated in Ethiopia. The Sahel [ ] The earliest evidence for the domestication of plants for agricultural purposes in Africa occurred in the region c. 5000 BCE, when and ( Oryza glaberrima) began to be cultivated.

Around this time, and in the same region, the small was domesticated. Other African domesticated plants were oil palm,,,, and. Sorghum domesticated in the Sahel African methods of cultivating rice, introduced by enslaved Africans, may have been used in North Carolina. This may have been a factor in the prosperity of the North Carolina colony. S were domesticated 8000 BCE in West Africa.

Between 7000 and 5000 BCE, pearl,,, and also spread westward across the southern Sahara. Between 6500 and 3500 BCE knowledge of domesticated sorghum, castor beans, and two species of gourd spread from Africa to Asia. Pearl millet, black-eyed peas, watermelon, and okra later spread to the rest of the world. East Africa [ ] is an archaeological site in northern Tanzania known for the ruins of a complex irrigation system. Stone channels were used to dike, dam, and level surrounding river waters.

Some of these channels were several kilometers long, channelling and feeding individual plots of land totaling approximately 5,000 acres (20 km 2). Seven stone-terraced villages along the mountainside also comprise the settlement. Textiles [ ] Nile Valley [ ] Egyptians wore from the plant, and used looms as early as 4000 BCE. Nubians mainly wore cotton, beaded leather, and linen. Ethiopia [ ] Shemma, shama, and kuta are all cotton-based cloths used for making clothing. Three types of are used in Africa: the double heddle loom for narrow strips of cloth, the single heddle loom for wider spans of cloth, and the ground or pit loom.

The double heddle loom and single heddle loom might be of African origin. The ground or pit loom is used in the,, and and is of Middle Eastern origins. Northern Africa and the Sahel [ ]. Bogolan Mud Cloth (mudcloth) is cotton textile dyed with fermented mud of tree sap and teas, hand made by the of the Beledougou region of central. By the 12th century, so-called Moroccan leather, which actually came from the area of northern, was supplied to Mediterranean markets and found their way to the fairs and markets of such places as Normandy and Britain.

West Africa [ ] used silk from the Anaphe moth and was produced by the (Ashante, Fante, Enzema) in the countries of and. Central Africa [ ] Raffia cloth was the innovation of the people, present day Democratic Republic of Congo. It used the fibers of the leaves on the tree. East Africa [ ] was used by the in from the Mutuba tree ( Ficus natalensis). Are pieces of fabric that come in rectangular shapes, made of pure cotton, and put together to make clothing. It is as long as ones outstretch hand and wide to cover the length of ones neck.

Are similar to kangas and, but are of a thicker cloth, and have an edging only on a long side.,,, and are some of the African countries where kitenge are worn. In, and, kitenge are known as Chitenge. Was cloth made of multicolored silk, worn like a toga on the island of Madagascar. Southern Africa [ ] In southern Africa one finds numerous use of animal hide and skins for clothing. The Ndau in central Mozambique and the Shona mixed hide with barkcloth and cotton cloth. Cotton weaving was practiced by the Ndau and Shona.

Cotton cloth was referred to as machira. The Venda, Swazi, Basotho, Zulu, Ndebele, and Xhosa also made extensive use of hides. Hides came from cattle, sheep, goat, elephant, and from jangwa( part of the mongoose family). Leopard skins were coveted and was a symbol of kingship in Zulu society.

Skins were tanned to form leather, dyed, and embedded with beads. Maritime technology [ ] In 1987 the third oldest canoe in the world and the oldest in Africa, the, was discovered in by Fulani herdsmen near the Yobe river and the village of Dufuna. It dates to approximately 8000 years ago, and was made from African mahogany. North Africa [ ] 's fleet included large numbers of quadriremes and quinqueremes, warships with four and five ranks of rowers. Its ships dominated the Mediterranean. The Romans however were masters at copying and adapting the technology of other peoples.

According to Polybius, the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian warship, and used it as a blueprint for a massive naval build-up, adding their own refinement – the corvus – which allowed an enemy vessel to be 'gripped' and boarded for hand-to-hand fighting. This negated initially superior Carthaginian seamanship and ships.

The Sahel and West Africa [ ] In the 14th century CE King, the brother of King of the is thought to have had a great armada of ships sitting on the coast of. This is corroborated by ibn Battuta himself who recalls several hundred Malian ships off the coast. The ships would communicate with each other by drums.

This has led to great speculation, that Malian sailors may have reached the coast of America under the rule of, nearly two hundred years before. Bagandan War Canoe Numerous sources attest that the inland waterways of West Africa saw extensive use of war-canoes and vessels used for war transport where permitted by the environment. Most West African canoes were of single log construction, carved and dug-out from one massive tree trunk. The primary method of propulsion was by paddle and in shallow water, poles. Sails were also used to a lesser extent, particularly on trading vessels. The silk cotton tree provided many of the most table logs for massive canoe building, and launching was via wooden rollers to the water. Boat building specialists were to emerge among certain peoples, particularly in the Niger Delta.

Some canoes were 80 feet (24 m) in length, carrying 100 men or more. Documents from 1506 for example, refer to war-canoes on the Sierra Leone river, carrying 120 men. Others refer to Guinea coast peoples using canoes of varying sizes – some 70 feet (21 m) in length, 7–8 ft broad, with sharp pointed ends, rowing benches on the side, and quarter decks or focastles build of reeds, and miscellaneous facilities such as cooking hearths, and storage spaces for crew sleeping mats. Nile Valley [ ] Early knew how to assemble of wood into a as early as 3000 BC (5000 BCE). The oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in, were constructed from wooden planks which were 'sewn' together.

Woven straps were used to lash the planks together, and or stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary complex belonging to, originally the boats were all thought to have belonged to him. One of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, however, and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, possibly. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with to fasten them together, using for the. The ', a 43.6-meter vessel sealed into a pit in the at the foot of the in the around 2500 BCE, is a full-size surviving example which may have fulfilled the symbolic function of a. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with joints. Horn of Africa and the Swahili Coast [ ] It is known that ancient traded with, and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to Persia, Himyar and.

Aksum was known by the for having seaports for ships from Greece and. Elsewhere in Northeast Africa, the 1st century CE Greek travelogue reports that, through their northern ports such as and, were trading and other items with the inhabitants of the as well as with the then -controlled. Construction and repair of dhows, near Mtoni, Zanzibar Middle Age are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians are 'metropolises'. Famous African trade ports such as,, and were known to Chinese sailors such as and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager. The was the ship of trade used by the Swahili. They could be massive.

It was a dhow that transported a giraffe to Chinese Emperor Yong Le's court, in 1414. Although the dhow is often associated with Arabs, it is of Indian roots. [ ] Architecture [ ]. Further information: West Africa [ ] The City are collectively the world's largest man-made structure and were semi-destroyed by the British in 1897.

Fred Pearce wrote in New Scientist: 'They extend for some 16,000 kilometres in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 6500 square kilometres and were all dug by the people. In all, they are four times longer than the Great Wall of China, and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops. They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet.'

Is the second largest pre-colonial monument in Africa, larger than the. Built by the in honour of one of their titled personages, an aristocratic widow known as the Bilikisu Sungbo, it is made up of sprawling mud walls and the valleys that surrounded the town of Ijebu-Ode in Ogun state, Nigeria. North Africa and the Sahel [ ] Around 1000 AD, (tabya) first appears in the Maghreb and al-Andalus. Is the oldest surviving archaeological settlements in the Sahel and is the oldest all-stone settlement south of the Sahara. It is thought to have been built by and is thought to be the precursor of the. [ ] The is the largest mud brick or adobe building in the world and is considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, albeit with definite Islamic influences. Nile Valley [ ] The Egyptian step pyramid built at Saqqara is the oldest major stone building in the world.

The was the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years. The earliest style of included the, structures carved out of solid rock, an (3700–3250 BCE) achievement. Egyptians made extensive use of the process at and., site of ancient, has more pyramids than anywhere in the world, even more than, a total of 223 pyramids exist. Ethiopia [ ] Aksumites built in stone.

Monolithic stelae on top of the graves of kings like. Later, during the Churches carved out of solid rocks like.

Babbal Rai New Song Sohni Free Download. Southern Africa [ ] In southern Africa one finds ancient and widespread traditions of building in stone. Two broad categories of these traditions have been noted: 1. Zimbabwean style 2. Transvaal Free State style. North of the Zambezi one finds very few stone ruins.,, and Thulamela uses the Zimbabwean style.

Tsotho/Tswana architecture represents the Transvaal Free State style. Khauxa!nas stone settlement in Namibia represents both traditions. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (1075–1220) was a pre-colonial Southern African state located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers which marked the center of a pre-Shona kingdom which preceded the culmination of southeast African urban civilization in.

Communication systems [ ]. Hieroglyphs on an Egyptian funerary stela Africa's first writing system and the beginning of the alphabet was. Two scripts have been the direct offspring of, the and the. Out of came the and, out of which the,, the, were directly or indirectly derived. Out of the came the which is used to write (cushitic),,, and in and.

Out the came, the berber alphabet mainly used by the. The other direct offspring of was the. It began in the Napatan phase of Nubian history, (700–300 BCE).

It came into full fruition in the 2nd century, under the successor Nubian kingdom of. The script can be read but not understood, with the discovery at el-Hassa, Sudan of ram statues bearing meroitic inscriptions might assist in its translation. The Sahel [ ] With the arrival of Islam, came the in the. Arabic writing is widespread in the. The Arabic script was also used to write native African languages. The script used in this capacity is often called. The languages that have been or are written in Ajami include,,,,,,,, and.

West Africa [ ] developed by in 1949 as a writing system for the Mande languages of West Africa. It is used in,,, and neighboring countries by a number of speakers of. Is set of symbols developed by the people of Southeastern coastal Nigeria for communication. A complex implementation of Nsibidi is only known to initiates of secret society. A talking drum Niger-Congo languages are tonal in nature. Exploit the tonal aspect of Niger-Congo languages to convey very complicated messages.

Talking drums can send messages 15 to 25 miles (40 km). Bulu, a Bantu language, can be drummed as well as spoken. In a Bulu village, each individual had a unique drum signature. A message could be sent to an individual by drumming his drum signature. It has been noted that a message can be sent 100 miles (160 km) from village to village within two hours or less using a talking drum. East Africa and Madagascar [ ] On the, the was written in Arabic script, as was the in Madagascar.

Further information: and Most of tropical did not have a cavalry. Horses would be wiped out by tse-tse fly. The was never domesticated. The army of tropical consisted of mainly infantry. Weapons included bows and arrows with low bow strength that compensated with poison tipped arrows.

Throwing knives were made use of in central Africa, spears that could double as thrusting cutting weapons, and swords were also in use. Heavy clubs when thrown could break bones, battle axe, and shields of various sizes were in widespread use. Later guns, muskets such as flintlock, wheelock, and matchlock. Sparkadia Postcards Rarity. Contrary to popular perception, guns were also in widespread use in Africa.

They typically were of poor quality, a policy of European nations to provide poor quality merchandise. One reason the slave trade was so successful was the widespread use of guns in Africa.

Fortification was a major part of defense, integral to warfare. Massive earthworks were built around cities and settlements in West Africa, typically defended by soldiers with bow and poison tipped arrows. The earthworks are some of the largest man made structures in Africa and the world such as the wall of Benin and. In Central Africa, the Angola region, one find preference for ditches, which were more successful for defense against wars with Europeans.

African infantry did not just include men. The state of included all-female units, the so-called, who were personal body guards of the king. The Queen Mother of Benin had her own personal army, 'Queens Own.' Nile Valley [ ] Ancient Egyptian weaponry include bows and arrow, maces, clubs, scimitars, swords, shields, and knives.

Body armor was made of bands of leathers and sometimes laid with scales of copper. Horse-drawn chariots were used to deliver archers into the battle field. Weapons were initially made with stone, wood, and copper, later bronze, and later iron. In 1260, the first portable (midfa) loaded with explosive gunpowder, the first example of a handgun and portable firearm, were used by the Egyptians to repel the Mongols at the.

The cannons had an explosive gunpowder composition almost identical to the ideal compositions for modern explosive gunpowder. They were also the first to use dissolved talc for fire protection, and they wore fireproof clothing, to which Gunpowder cartridges were attached. Aksumite weapons were mainly made of iron: iron spears, iron swords, and iron knives called poniards. Shields were made of buffalo hide.

In the latter part of the 19th century, Ethiopia made a concerted effort to modernize her army. She acquired repeating rifles, artillery, and machine guns. This modernization facilitated the Ethiopian victory over the Italians at the Tigray town of Adwa in the 1896. Ethiopia was one of the few African countries to use artillery in colonial wars.

There are also a breastplate armor made of the horny back plates of crocodile from, which was given to the as part of the archaeological Founding Collection in 1884. North Africa and the Sahel [ ] The first use of cannons as siege machine at the siege of in 1274, according to 14th-century historian.

Mossi cavalry in the Sahel The Sahelian military consisted of cavalry and infantry. Cavalry consisted of shielded, mounted soldiers. Body armor was chain mail or heavy quilted cotton. Helmets were made of leather, elephant, or hippo hide. Imported horses were shielded.

Horse armor consisted of quilted cotton packed with kapok fiber and copper face plate. The stirrups could be used as weapon to disembowel enemy infantry or mounted soldiers at close range. Weapons included the sword, lance, battle-axe, and broad-bladed spear. The infantry were armed with bow and iron tipped arrows.

Iron tips were usually laced with poison, from the West African plant. Quivers of 40–50 arrows would be carried into battle. Later, muskets were introduced. Southern Africa [ ] At the on 22 January 1879, the Zulu army defeated British invading troops. From the 1960s to the 1980s, pursued research into, including,, and. Six nuclear weapons were assembled. With the anticipated changeover to a majority-elected government in the 1990s, the South African government dismantled all of its nuclear weapons, the first nation in the world which voluntarily gave up nuclear arms it had developed itself.

Commerce [ ] Numerous metal objects and other items were used as currency in Africa. They are as follows:, salt, gold (dust or solid), copper, ingots, iron chains, tips of iron spears, iron knives, cloth in various shapes (square, rolled, etc.).

Was as valuable as gold in Africa. Copper was not as widespread and more difficult to acquire, except in Central Africa, than gold. Other valuable metals included lead and tin.

Was also as valuable as gold. Because of its scarcity, it was used as currency. North Africa [ ] imported gold, copper, ivory, and slaves from tropical Africa.

Carthage exported salt, cloth, metal goods. Before camels were used in the trans-Saharan trade pack animals, oxen, donkeys, mules, and horses were utilized. Extensive use of began in the 1st century CE. Carthage minted gold, silver, bronze, and (mix gold and silver) coins mainly for fighting wars with Greeks and Romans. Most of their fighting force were mercenaries, who had to be paid. Islamic North Africa made use of the and, gold coins.

The dinar and the dinar were printed on gold from the Sahelian empires. The of Genoa and Venice and the florine of Florence were also printed on gold from the Sahelian empires. West Africa and the Sahel [ ]. Cowry money Cowries have been used as currency in West Africa since the 11th century when their use was first recorded near Old Ghana. Its use may have been much older.

In present-day Morocco seems to be a major source of cowries in the trans-Saharan trade. In western Africa, shell money was usual tender up until the middle of the 19th century.

Before the abolition of the slave trade there were large shipments of cowry shells to some of the English ports for reshipment to the slave coast. It was also common in West Central Africa as the currency of the Kingdom of Kongo called locally nzimbu. As the value of the cowry was much greater in West Africa than in the regions from which the supply was obtained, the trade was extremely lucrative. In some cases the gains are said to have been 500%. The use of the cowry currency gradually spread inland in Africa. By about 1850 Heinrich Barth found it fairly widespread in Kano, Kuka, Gando, and even Timbuktu. Barth relates that in Muniyoma, one of the ancient divisions of Bornu, the king's revenue was estimated at 30,000,000 shells, with every adult male being required to pay annually 1000 shells for himself, 1000 for every pack-ox, and 2000 for every slave in his possession.

In the countries on the coast, the shells were fastened together in strings of 40 or 100 each, so that fifty or twenty strings represented a dollar; but in the interior they were laboriously counted one by one, or, if the trader were expert, five by five. The districts mentioned above received their supply of kurdi, as they were called, from the west coast; but the regions to the north of Unyamwezi, where they were in use under the name of simbi, were dependent on Muslim traders from Zanzibar. The shells were used in the remoter parts of Africa until the early 20th century, but gave way to modern currencies. The shell of the land snail, Achatina monetaria, cut into circles with an open center was also used as coin in Benguella, Portuguese West Africa. The,, and were major exporters of gold, iron, tin, slaves, spears, javelin, arrows, bows, whips of hippo hide.

They imported salt, horses, wheat, raisins, cowries, dates, copper, henna, olives, tanned hides, silk, cloth, brocade, Venetian pearls, mirrors, and tobacco. Some of the currencies used in the Sahel included paper debt or IOU's for long distance trade, gold coins, and the mitkal (gold dust) currency. Gold dust that weighed 4.6 grams was equivalent to 500 or 3,000 cowries. Square cloth, four spans on each side, called chigguiya was used around the Senegal River.

In cloth was the major currency. A cloth currency called dandi was also in widespread use. Nile Valley [ ] imported ivory, gold, incense, hardwood, and ostrich feather. Exported gold, cotton/cotton cloth, ostrich feathers, leopard skins, ivory, ebony, and iron/iron weapons. Horn of Africa [ ] exported ivory, glass crystal, brass, copper, myrrh, and. The Aksumites imported silver, gold, olive oil, and wine. The Aksumites produced coins around 270 CE, under the rule of king Endubis.

Aksumite coins were issued in gold, silver, and bronze. East Africa [ ] The Swahili served as middlemen. They connected African goods to Asian markets and Asian goods to African markets. Their most in demand export was Ivory.

They exported, gold, leopard skins, slaves, and tortoise shell. They imported pottery and glassware from Asia. They also manufactured items such as cotton, glass and shell beads. Imports and locally manufactured goods were used as trade to acquire African goods.

Trade links included the Arabian Peninsula, Persia, India, and China. The Swahili also minted silver and copper coins. Current scientific research in Africa [ ], won the 1999 in chemistry for his work in, methods that allow the description of change states in femtoseconds or very short seconds. The has a program called. Currently, forty percent of African-born scientists live in OCED countries, predominantly NATO and EU countries. This has been described as an African.

African countries spent on average 0.3% of their GDP on S&T (Science and Technology) in 2007. This represents a combined increase from US$1.8bn in 2002 to US$2.8bn in 2007. Countries spend a comparative 0.4% of GDP on research, an increase from US$2.6bn in 2002 to US$3.3bn in 2007. Exempting South Africa, the continent has augmented its collective science funding by about 50% in the last decade. Notably outstripping its neighbor states, spends 0.87% of GDP on science and technology research.

Although have a long history in the US and Europe, their presence across Africa is still limited, as the continent currently lags behind other regions of the world in terms of funding technological development and innovation. Only six countries (,,,, and ) have made technology park construction an integral piece of their development goals. In recent years, a greater volume of African countries have embraced technology as a driver of development, e.g. 's and 's rapid ICT growth. Telecom innovation in particular has broadly improved quality of life across sub-Saharan Africa.

[ ] Also, continent-wide membership in social networking sites such as has risen to over 100,000 by 2012. [ ] See also [ ] • • • References [ ].

This article is about the Christian term. For other uses, see. In some Christian movements, particularly in, to be born again is a popular phrase referring to 'spiritual rebirth', or a of the human spirit from the, contrasted with physical birth. In contemporary Christian usage, the term is distinct from sometimes similar terms used in mainstream to refer to being or becoming Christian, which is linked to. Individuals who profess to be 'born again' often state that they have a personal relationship with. The phrase 'born again' is also used as an adjective to describe individual members of the movement who espouse this belief, as well as the movement itself ('born-again Christian' and the 'born-again movement').

Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Origin [ ] The term is derived from an event in the in which the words of were not understood by a Jewish pharisee,. Jesus replied, 'Very truly I tell you, no one can see the kingdom of God unless they are born again.' 'How can someone be born when they are old?' Nicodemus asked. 'Surely they cannot enter a second time into their mother's womb to be born!' Jesus answered, 'Very truly I tell you, no one can enter the kingdom of God unless they are born of water and the Spirit.' This section contains for an encyclopedic entry.

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(June 2014) The term 'born again' is used by several Christian denominations, but there are disagreements on what the term means, and whether members of other denominations are justified in claiming to be born-again Christians. A Catholic website says: Catholics should ask Protestants, 'Are you born again—the way the Bible understands that concept?' If the Evangelical has not been properly water baptized, he has not been born again 'the Bible way,' regardless of what he may think. On the other hand, an Evangelical site argues: Another of many examples is the Catholic who claims he also is 'born again.'

However, what the committed Catholic means is that he received his spiritual birth when he was baptized—either as an infant or when as an adult he converted to Catholicism. That's not what Jesus meant when He told Nicodemus he 'must be born again' (Jn 3:3-8). The deliberate adoption of biblical terms which have different meanings for Catholics has become an effective tool in Rome's ecumenical agenda. The Reformed view of regeneration may be set apart from other outlooks in at least two ways. First, classical Roman Catholicism teaches that regeneration occurs at baptism, a view known as baptismal regeneration. Reformed theology has insisted that regeneration may take place at any time in a person's life, even in the womb.

It is not somehow the automatic result of baptism. Second, it is common for many other evangelical branches of the church to speak of repentance and faith leading to regeneration (i.e., people are born again only after they exercise saving faith). By contrast, Reformed theology teaches that original sin and total depravity deprive all people of the moral ability and will to exercise saving faith. Regeneration is entirely the work of God the Holy Spirit - we can do nothing on our own to obtain it. God alone raises the elect from spiritual death to new life in Christ (Eph. History and usage [ ] Historically, Christianity has used various to describe its of initiation, that is, via the of by the power of the water and the. This remains the common understanding in most of, held, for example, in,,,,, and in much of.

However, sometime after the, attributed greater significance to the expression born again as an experience of (), symbolized by deep-water baptism, and rooted in a commitment to one's own personal faith in Jesus Christ for salvation. This same belief is, historically, also an integral part of doctrine, and is connected with the doctrine of. According to: 'Rebirth' has often been identified with a definite, temporally datable form of 'conversion'.

With the voluntaristic type, rebirth is expressed in a new alignment of the will, in the liberation of new capabilities and powers that were hitherto undeveloped in the person concerned. With the intellectual type, it leads to an activation of the capabilities for understanding, to the breakthrough of a 'vision'. With others it leads to the discovery of an unexpected beauty in the order of nature or to the discovery of the mysterious meaning of history. With still others it leads to a new vision of the moral life and its orders, to a selfless realization of love of neighbour. Each person affected perceives his life in Christ at any given time as “newness of life.” According to: Born again is a phrase used by many Protestants to describe the phenomenon of gaining faith in Jesus Christ.

It is an experience when everything they have been taught as Christians becomes real, and they develop a direct and personal relationship with God. According to and Charles Partee: Sometimes the phrase seems to be judgmental, making a distinction between genuine and nominal Christians. Descriptive, like the distinction between liberal and conservative Christians. Occasionally, the phrase seems historic, like the division between Catholic and Protestant Christians. [the term] usually includes the notion of human choice in salvation and excludes a view of divine election by grace alone. The term born again has become widely associated with the Christian renewal since the late 1960s, first in the United States and then around the world. Associated perhaps initially with and the Christian counterculture, born again came to refer to a conversion experience, accepting Jesus Christ as lord and savior in order to be saved from hell and given eternal life with God in heaven, and was increasingly used as a term to identify devout believers.

By the mid-1970s, born again Christians were increasingly referred to in the mainstream media as part of the born again movement. In 1976, conspirator 's book Born Again gained international notice. Named him 'One of the 25 most influential Evangelicals in America.' The term was sufficiently prevalent so that during the year's presidential campaign, nominee described himself as 'born again' in the first magazine interview of an American presidential candidate. Colson describes his path to faith in conjunction with his criminal imprisonment and played a significant role in solidifying the 'born again' identity as a in the US.

He writes that his spiritual experience followed considerable struggle and hesitancy to have a 'personal encounter with God.' He recalls: while I sat alone staring at the sea I love, words I had not been certain I could understand or say fell from my lips: 'Lord Jesus, I believe in You. I accept You. Please come into my life.

I commit it to You.' With these few words.came a sureness of mind that matched the depth of feeling in my heart. There came something more: strength and serenity, a wonderful new assurance about life, a fresh perception of myself in the world around me. Was the first President of the United States to publicly declare that he was born-again, in 1976.

By the, all three major candidates stated that they had been born again. Sider and Knippers state that 's election that fall [was] aided by the votes of 61% of 'born-again' white Protestants.' The reported that 'In 2003, 42% of U.S.

Adults said they were born-again or evangelical; the 2004 percentage is 41%' and that, ' are far more likely to identify themselves as born-again or evangelical, with 63% of blacks saying they are born-again, compared with 39% of. Are far more likely to say they are born-again (52%) than (36%) or independents (32%).' Haiven refers to 'born-agains' as having 'a type of intolerance'. She says, 'The instant and thoughtless panaceas of born-again Christianity will be seen as a vast sanctuary by millions of North Americans.' She continues, 'Is this sanctuary really a recruitment camp for?

It would be naive to think otherwise.' The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics, referring to several studies, reports 'that 'born-again' identification is associated with lower support for government anti-poverty programs.' It also notes that 'self-reported born-again' Christianity, 'strongly shapes attitudes towards economic policy.' Names inspired by the term [ ].