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Monitoring the system: Basic command line: Processes and parent-child relationships Show top processes Report processors related statistics. Example: mpstat -A (Ubuntu install: apt-get install sysstat) generate system resource statistics report. Examples: dstat -a, dstat -f (Ubuntu install: apt-get install dstat) Report CPU statistics and input/output statistics for devices and partitions. Report virtual memory statistics display file or file system status. Example: stat -f /dev/sda1 / list NFS statistics (Ubuntu install: apt-get install nfs-common) network statistics tools process status print system information cat /proc/version Display Linux kernel version in use. Cat /etc/redhat-release Display Red Hat Linux Release.

(also /etc/issue) Tell how long the system has been running. Also number of users and system's load average. Show who is logged on and what they are doing. List all currently loaded kernel modules. Same as cat /proc/modules Displays the system's current runlevel.

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Displays/changes the system's node name. (Must also manually change hostname setting in /etc/sysconfig/network. Command will change entry in /etc/hosts) service Red Hat/Fedora command to display status of system services. Example: service --status-all Help: service --help Also see,,,,,,,,. GUI/Graphical: Operating system monitor and usage graphing. Graphical system monitor.

(Additional RPM package: gkrellm) 3D load meter. Very cool 3-D graphics.

Operating system monitor: load, memory, swap, net, disk. List of tools: •. Process Management: Processes execute within their own process environment, they have their own memory, current working directory, priority, process ID, parent process ID and the file access privileges of the user ID under which they execute. The basic Linux monitoring commands such as pstree and ps -auxw and top will inform you of the processes running on your system. Sometimes a process must be terminated. To terminate a process: • Identify the process: • pstree -p OR • ps -auxw OR • top • Kill the process: • kill • killall This will perform an orderly shutdown of the process.

If it hangs give a stronger signal with: kill -9. This method is not as sanitary and thus less preferred. A signal may be given to the process.

The program must be programmed to handle the given signal. See /usr/include/bits/signum.h for a full list. For example, to restart a process after updating it's configuration file, issue the command kill -HUP In the previous example, the HUP signal was sent to the process. The software was written to trap for the signal so that it could respond to it.

If the software (command) is not written to respond to a particular signal, then the sending of the signal to the process is futile. Identify all known signals: -l Process Monitoring and Management GUI Tools: •: Oldie but goodie. • gnome-system-monitor • ksysguard (comes with SuSE) • (See below) QPS: Also see the.

(Handles MOSIX cluster) This tool is outstanding for monitoring, adjusting nice values (priorities), issue signals to the process, view files the process is using, the memory, environmnet variables and sockets the process is using. RPM available from this site. It is so simple to use, no instructions are necessary. It can monitor a program to make sure it isn't doing something bad. It is also reverse engineer what applications are doing and the environments under which they run. I love this tool!!

•: • (SuSE version 9.3 ships with a brokern QPS. Download a working version at link above.) Note: The RPM provided was compiled for RedHat 7.x. For RedHat 8.0+ one must install the appropriate QT library RPMs to satisfy dependencies: rpm -ivh qt2-2.3.1-8.i386.rpm qt2-Xt-2.3.1-8.i386.rpm qt2-devel-2.3.1-8.i386.rpm qt2-static-2.3.1-8.i386.rpm Then install qps: rpm -ivh qps-1.9.7-5.i386.rpm Note Fedora Core 3: rpm -ivh qt2-2.3.1-8.i386.rpm qps-1.9.7-5.i386.rpm These older RH 8.0 and 7 binary release rpms even work on my AMD64 Fedora Core 3 x86_64 OS system. Configuring QPS to run applications against a process: Select 'Command' + 'Edit Commands.' • Description: GDB Command Line: xterm -T 'GDB%C' -e gdb -d / directory-where-source-code-is-located --pid=%p • Description: gdb Command Line: xterm -T 'gdb%c (%p)' -e gdb /proc/%p/exe%p & (As issued in RPM) • Description: strace Command Line: xterm -T 'strace%c (%p)' -e sh -c 'strace -f -p%p; sleep 10000'& (show process system calls and signals.

Try it with the process qps itself.) Show output written by process: xterm -T 'strace%c (%p)' -e sh -c 'strace -f -q -e trace=write -p%p; sleep 10000'& • Description: truss (Solaris command) Command Line: xterm -T 'truss%C (%p) -e sh -c 'truss -f -p%p; sleep 1000'& nice: Process Priority Control Multi-tasking operating systems executes processes in a time slice fashion sharing the processing resources base on their current privilege. Privileges are not constant and elevate if they have not received an execution allocation in the processor after a given time. This is to ensure that all processes get executed regardless of priority although a process can get squeezed out of the time allocation alltogether if the system is overloaded. Higher priority processes may get more time allocated on the processor than a lower priority process but it is likely that the lower process will get some processor allocation. Many system process which manage the system environment execute at an elevated priority in order to guarentee that they get executed. User processes can have their priority elevated using the nice command. Nice values have a range from -20 (most favorable scheduling) to 19 (least favorable).

Beware that if the priority is elevated higer than a system process, the behavior of the system may be compromised. • - run a program with modified scheduling priority • - alter priority of running processes Modify process scheduling priority: • Lower scheduling priority (runs slower and less likely to slow you down.) nice -n 19 program-to-launch Default for ' nice -n' is 10 • Show default for any process: nice executable Shows nice value to be used if run. IPCs: Semaphores, Shared Memory and Queues Note that some processes may use Linux InterProcess Communication or IPC (semaphores, shared memory or queues) which may need to be cleaned up manually: • Identify the semaphores: ipcs -q List share queues. Ipcs -m Shared memory.

Ipcs -s List Semaphores. • Remove the semaphores: -s Example: If you are running Apache, you may see the following: [root@node DIR]# ipcs -m ------ Shared Memory Segments -------- key shmid owner perms bytes nattch status 0x00004 nobody 600 46084 27 dest lsof - Processes attached to open files or open network ports: The command shows a list of processes attached to open files or network ports. Memory Usage: Linux Commands to Monitor Memory Usage: Monitor virtual memory Display amount of free and used memory in the system.

(Also: cat /proc/meminfo) Display/examine memory map and libraries (so). Usage: pmap pid Show top processes -B Show statistics on page swapping. -v date Show system page size, page faults, etc of a process during execution. Note you must fully qualify the command as ' /usr/bin/time' to avoid using the bash shell command 'time'. Cat /proc/sys/vm/freepages Display virtual memory 'free pages'. One may increase/decrease this limit: echo 300 400 500 >/proc/sys/vm/freepages cat /proc/meminfo Show memory size and usage.

Examination of memory usage: • Show system page size: /usr/bin/time -v date. Page size (bytes): 4096 Exit status: 0 • Show paging: /usr/bin/time -v firefox. Major (requiring I/O) page faults: 24 Minor (reclaiming a frame) page faults: 11271 Voluntary context switches: 302 Involuntary context switches: 3689. • MemTotal: View system memory limits: grep MemTotal /proc/meminfo MemTotal: 7919128 kB • swapon: View system swap size: /sbin/ -s Filename Type SizeUsedPriority /dev/sda5 partition198021080-1 Also see Explanation of terms: • Major Page Fault (MPF): When a request for memory is made but it does not exist in physical memory, a request to the disk subsystem to retrieve pages from virtual memory and buffer them in RAM.

The MPF occurs most when an application is started. • Minor Page Fault (MnPF): Reusing a page in memory as opposed to placing it back on disk.

Filesystems and Storage Devices: Hard Drive Info: report filesystem disk space usage. (-k reports in Kbytes) Calculates file space usage for a given directory. (and everything under it) (-s option summarizes) Displays all mounted devices, their mount point, filesystem, and access. Used with command line arguments to mount file system. Cat /proc/filesystems Display filesystems currently in use.

Cat /proc/mounts Display mounted filesystems currently in use. Displays mount info for NFS filesystems. Cat /proc/swaps Displays swap partition(s) size, type and quantity used. Cat /proc/ide/hda/ any-file Displays disk information held by kernel.

Adding an extra hard drive: () • /dev/ - Allocate drive space and register info on the partition table. (Option 'n'/'p', then 'w' to write.) Also see: - • -t ext3 /dev/ - Create file system. (RH 7.1 and earlier use ext2, RH 7.2-8.0 use ext3) • -t ext3 /dev/ / - Mount the drive Mount a raw ISO file: mount -t iso9660 -o loop /home/ user1/RedHat-9.0-i386-Disk1.iso /mnt/iso-1 (Fstab entry: /home/ user1/RedHat-9.0-i386-Disk1.iso /mnt/iso-1 iso9660 loop,ro 0 3) Also see: Where the drive is /dev/hdb or some device as conforms to the Linux device names: IDE drives are referred to as hda for the first drive, hdb for the second etc. IDE uses separate ribbon cables for primary and secondary drives. The partitions on each drive are referred numerically. The first partition on the first drive is referred to as hda1, the second as hda2, the third as hda3 etc.

Linux IDE naming conventions: Device Description Configuration /dev/hda 1st (Primary) IDE controller Master /dev/hdb 1st (Primary) IDE controller Slave /dev/hdc 2nd (Secondary) IDE controller Master /dev/hdd 2nd (Secondary) IDE controller Slave Note: SCSI disks are labeled /dev/sda, sdb, etc. For more info see. Use the command cat /proc/partitions to see full list of disks and partitions that your system can see. See Linux devices: • Kernel 2.4: (Red Hat 7.1+) • - (local file) • Kernel 2.2: (Red Hat 7.0-) • (local file) - H. Peter Anvin To make the drive a permanent member of your system and have it mount upon system boot, add it to your /etc/fstab file which holds all the file system information for your system. Example of existing /etc/fstab file: /dev/sdb6 / ext2 defaults 1 1 /dev/sdb1 /boot ext2 defaults 1 2 /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 noauto,user,users,ro 0 0 /dev/fd0 /mnt/floppy auto noauto,owner 0 0 none /proc proc defaults 0 0 none /dev/pts devpts gid=5,mode=620 0 0 /dev/sdb5 swap swap defaults 0 0 Add SCSI drive by adding line: /dev/sdc1 /home2 ext2 defaults 1 2 At this point one may optionally check the file system created with the command: fsck /dev/sdc1 Note that fsck is NOT run against a mounted file system. Unmount it first if necessary.

(umount) Also see the man page for: • - Curses based disk partition table manipulator. (very nice) • - Manipulate/configure the partition table. • - Manipulate/configure the partition table. • Mounting other file systems: (locally attached drives) • Mounting a CD: mount -r -t iso9660 /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom Un-Mount the CD-ROM: umount /dev/cdrom (No 'n' in umount) This command should work for a Red Hat installation. Other distributions may require the following set-up: ln -sf /dev/hdc /dev/scd0 Reference SCSI device directly. OR ln -sf /dev/hdc /dev/cdrom A more typical system cd /mnt mkdir cdrom mount -t iso9660 -o ro /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom Don't forget to un-mount the CD with umount /mnt/cdrom [Potential Pitfall]: There is NO 'N' in umount!!! For trouble shooting your CD see your kernel documentation: • Kernel 2.4: (local file) • Kernel 2.2: (local file) • • Mounting a floppy: • Mount MS-DOS floppy: mount /dev/fd1 -t vfat /mnt/floppy Also see the.

• Unix floppy: • Ramdisk: Using a portion of RAM memory to act like a superfast disk. /sbin/mkfs -t ext2 /dev/ram mount /dev/ram /mnt/ramd [Potential Pitfall]: I've never actually tried this.

Use at your own risk! See • Add system swap space for virtual memory paging: Swap space may be a swap partition, a swap file or a combination of the two.

One should size swap space to be at least twice the size of the computer's RAM. (but less than 2GB) dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfile bs=1024 count=265032 - Create file filled with zeros of size 256Mb mkswap /swapfile - Create swap file swapon /swapfile - Begin use of given swap file. Assign a priority with the '-p' flag. Swapon -s - List swap files cat /proc/swaps - Same as above This example refers to a swap file.

One may also use a swap partition. Make entry to /etc/fstab to permanently use swap file or partition. /swapfile swap swap defaults 0 0 Note: To remove the use of swap space, use the command swapoff. If using a swap partition, the partition must be unmounted. Man pages: • - enable/disable devices and files for paging and swapping • - set up a Linux swap area • - static information about the filesystems • • • • • Increase open files limit: cat /proc/sys/fs/file-max - Kernel configuration for max number of files cat /proc/sys/fs/file-nr - Number of files presently open echo 4096 >/proc/sys/fs/file-max - Set max file limit.

(This is default) cat /proc/sys/fs/inode-max - Kernel 2.2 configuration for max number of inodes To change: echo 12288 >/proc/sys/kernel/inode-max • See: • man page - process information pseudo-filesystem • Local file Kernel 2.2 (RH 7.0-): (local file) Reboot count and fsck: Pertains to Red Hat systems using the EXT2 filesystem (RH 7.2+ uses EXT3) After 20 reboots of the system, Linux will perform a file system check using fsck. This is annoying for systems with many file systems because they will all be checked at once. The individual file system's mount count may be changed so that they will be checked on a different reboot.

Check current reboot status: /sbin/dumpe2fs /dev/sdb6 grep '[mM]ount count' dumpe2fs 1.19, 13-Jul-2000 for EXT2 FS 0.5b, 95/08/09 Mount count: 2 Maximum mount count: 20 (This of course is specific for my system. Refer to your particular filesystem.) Perform the previous command on all the filesystems to obtain their mount counts. Next change the mount counts for some of them. Umount /dev/sdb6 tune2fs -C 9 /dev/sdb6 mount /dev/sdb6 Now the filesystems will have an fsck performed on them on different system boots rather than all at the same time. For home users who routinely shutdown and boot their systems, one can increase the maximum mount count: tune2fs -c 40 This feature can also be disabled: tune2fs -c -1 Check every week: tune2fs -i 7 System crash and disk check upon boot: Pertains to Red Hat 7.1 EXT2 filesystems and earlier which require an integrity check. (RH 7.2+ uses EXT3 which is a journaled file system which maintains file system integrity even with a crash.) If the system crashes (due to power outage etc.) then upon boot the system will check if the disk was unmounted cleanly.

If not you may get the following message: Unexpected inconsistency; Run fsck Manually. *** An error occurred during the file system check. *** Dropping you to a shell; the system will reboot..

Give root password for maintenance (or type Control-D for normal startup): At this point enter the root password then run fsck: (repair file system) 1# fsck -A -y... ***** FILE SYSTEM WAS MODIFIED *****... (repair file system) 2# exit The system will hopefully reboot properly at this point. Note that fsck is NOT run against mounted file systems.

Journaled Filesystem EXT3: Convert from ext2 to ext3: • Red Hat 7.2 upgrade gives one the option to perform this file system upgrade. • Manual method: • Convert: tune2fs -j /dev/hda1 • Configuration file changes: /etc/fstab change ext2 to ext3 Also see: • • Other journaled file systems: SGI XFS, IBM JFS and reiserfs.

For files larger than 2Gb use. Raw Devices: Commercial databases such as Oracle and IBM DB2 can maximize performance by using raw I/O. One may use the raw command for both IDE and SCSI devices. This will map a raw device to a blocked device for an entire disk partition. To see if your system is using raw I/O issue the command: raw -a • • Configuration file: /etc/sysconfig/rawdevices Add entries to this file to invoke raw I/O upon system boot. • Devices: /dev/raw/raw??

• Raw device controller: /dev/rawctl • Sample use of command: raw /dev/raw/raw1 /dev/hdb5 • One must be of group disk to use the raw device or change permissions: • chmod a+r /dev/rawctl • chmod a+r /dev/hdb5 • chmod a+rw /dev/raw/raw1 Note: The above information applies to Red Hat distributions. This info may be different for other distributions. Uses /dev/raw1 as a device and /dev/raw as the controller. You can mimic Red Hat behavior with a symbolic link: ln -s /dev/your_raw_controller /dev/rawctl. Mounting Network Drives: • SMB Mount: • NFS: Mounting/exporting a Linux shared file server drive with NFS.

Requires the following packages: • Red Hat/CentOS: portmapper nfs-utils nfs-utils-lib redhat-config-nfs (Optional: nfs4-acl-tools) • Debian/Ubuntu: apt-get install nfs-kernel-server nfs-common portmap Client Server File: /etc/fstab. Server:/ directory-to-export /mnt/mount-point nfs rw,hard,intr 0 0 server1:/shared/images /mnt/srv1-images nfs rw,hard,intr 0 0. Hard mount read/write.

Mount can be interrupted by the kill command. Command line mount: mount -t nfs server1:/shared/images /mnt/srv1-images File: /etc/exports. /shared/images 176.168.1.0/255.255.255.0(rw).

List of directories to export and restrictions. For more see. Options: Option Description ro Mounts of the exported file system are read-only. Rw Mounts of the exported file system are read-write. Hard The program accessing a file on a NFS mounted file system will hang when the server crashes. Intr If an NFS file operation has a major time-out and it is hard mounted, then allow signals to interrupt the file operation and cause it to return. Async If the exported file system is read/write and hosts are making changes to the file system when the server crashes, data can be lost.

Sync By specifying the sync option, all file writes are committed to the disk before the write request by the client is completed. The sync option, however, can lower performance. Wdelay Causes the NFS server to delay writing to the disk if it suspects another write request is imminent. This can improve performance by reducing the number of times the disk must be accessed by separate write commands, reducing write overhead. The no_wdelay option turns off this feature, but is only available when using the sync option. Root_squash Prevents root users connected remotely from having root privileges and assigns them the user ID for the user nfsnobody.

This effectively 'squashes' the power of the remote root user to the lowest local user, preventing unauthorized alteration of files on the remote server. Alternatively, the no_root_squash option turns off root squashing. Pitfalls: • Server must run services: portmap (or rpcbind), nfslock, netfs, nfs • Restart server service to pick up file changes: service nfs restart (or: /etc/init.d/nfs restart) • Iptables may block port. Clear iptables rules with iptables -F to test. Keep ports 111 and 2049 clear. Iptables -A INPUT -f -j ACCEPT -s ip.pc.client iptables -A INPUT -s ip.pc.client -d 0/0 4000:4003 -p 6 -j ACCEPT iptables -A INPUT -s ip.pc.client -d 0/0 4000:4003 -p 17 -j ACCEPT iptables -A INPUT -s ip.pc.client -d 0/0 2049 -p 17 -j ACCEPT iptables -A INPUT -s ip.pc.client -d 0/0 2049 -p 6 -j ACCEPT iptables -A INPUT -s ip.pc.client -d 0/0 111 -p 6 -j ACCEPT iptables -A INPUT -s ip.pc.client -d 0/0 111 -p 17 -j ACCEPT • Check PAM restrictions in /etc/hosts.deny and hosts.allow. • To avoid NFS hanging up the system and immunity from the kill command, use the 'intr' option to allow the process to be interrupted.

• The user id (uid) numbers and the group id (gid) numbers on both systems MUST match to preserve sanity. Check the numbers used in /etc/passwd and /etc/group. Typically this problem is solved by using a single point of authentication. Use NIS or LDAP. • NEVER EVER mount to a user's home directory. /home/ user1/ mount-point This is because when the user is removed from the system with the command userdel -r user1, the user's home directory is wiped and all subdirectories including the path below the mount point will be erased!! • NFS is not an encrypted protocol, and anyone on the same physical network could sniff the traffic and reassemble the information being passed back and forth.

NFS Man pages: • - fstab format and options • - NFS file systems being exported (for Kernel based NFS) • - maintain list of NFS exported file systems • - NFS server process • - print NFS statistics • - NFS mount daemon NFS GUI Configuration tool: • system-config-nfs (Fedora Core 2+, RHEL4/5/6) • redhat-config-nfs (Fedora Core 1) NIS (Network Information Systems) is often used in NFS clusters to manage authentication. User Info: Commands: Displays currently logged in users. Use who -uH for idle time and terminal info. Show all users logged in. Displays currently logged in users and processes they are running.

Displays user id. Display groups you are part of. Use groups user-id to display groups for a given user.

Display all environment variables in your current environment. Display user and all group ids. Use id user-id to display info for another user id. Listing of most recent logins by users. Show where from, date and time of login (ftp, ssh.) Also see command. Show last 100 logins: last -100 Shell command to display previously entered commands.

User Greetings: The greeting messages and login displays are all customizable. Type of greeting File Telnet pre-login Text: File containing text: Ssh pre-login Text: Specify text file: Banner /etc/issue vsftpd Login Text: vsftpd config file: Set text greeting: ftpd_banner= Put welcome greeting here Post login text message: (message of the day) Default is blank.

GDM graphical login display: /etc/X11/gdm/gdm.conf (or /etc/gdm/gdm.conf) Set image: DefaultFace= /path/file.png Set logo: Logo= /path/file.png Set background: BackgroundImage= /path/file.png. Creating a new system local user account: The three most common methods of defining a Linux user and authenticating their logins are: • Local user authenticated locally with the password files and • Network authentication using an • NIS authentication server. To specify an NIS authentication server, use which contains the line: ypserver ip.address. Nightmare Luffy Mugen Char Download more. of.server. Find with The following describes creating a local user: • Command Line Method: (My preference) • user_name: Add a user to the system.

System uses configuration and security defaults set in /etc/default/useradd and /etc/login.defs • useradd -m user_name: Add a user to the system and create a home directory populated with default files from /etc/skel/ • useradd -m user_name -G floppy: Will grant the user read/write privileges to the floppy (/dev/fd0) upon creation of user by adding user to group floppy in addition to the default group specified in /etc/default/useradd. • useradd options: Option Description -c Adds a comment or description to the password record. -d HOME_DIR Specify but don't create the user's home directory. -m Create (if it does not already exist by appending username to ' /home/') and specify this as the users home directory. Default files from /etc/skel/ will be placed in the users home directory.

~/.bashrc -g Initial (default) group -G grp1, grp2 Specify additional supplementary groups to which the user belongs. -s Specify default shell. Default is /bin/bash in most Linux distributions.

See the for a full list of options. • user_name: Delete user from system. Purges user from /etc/passwd, group and shadow files • userdel -r user_name: Delete user and remove his home directory from the system. Other files will remain. [Potential Pitfall]: Use the command ' df' to see if there are any mount points to the user's directory. If there are any, they will get wiped out with the recursive delete. Thus as a policy it is best to NEVER generate a mount point within a user's directory.

It is best to mount to /mnt/ mount-dir and use a sym-link ( ln -s /mnt/ mount-dir /home/ user-name/ mount-dir-local) to the user's directory. The default is to not follow symlinks during the delete. • user_name: Assign a password to the user. (Also see, a password generator) Also see man page for:. Configuration file for useradd command: /etc/default/useradd Default directory configuration and files for a new user are copied from the directory /etc/skel/. The default shell is called bash (bsh) and is a cross of the UNIX ksh and csh command shells. The users personal bash shell customizations are held in $HOME/.bashrc.

• GUI Method: • system-config-users: GUI admin tool for managing users and groups. (Fedora Core 2+, RHEL4/5/6) • redhat-config-users: GUI admin tool for managing users and groups. (Fedora Core 1) • linuxconf: (Note: Linuxconf is no longer included with Red Hat Linux 7.3+) • Start linuxconf: • RH 5.2: Select Start + Programs + Administration + linuxconf. • RH 6+: Select Gnome Start icon (located lower left corner) + System + Linuxconf.

• Add the user: Select options Config + User accounts +Normal + User accounts + select button Add. There is also the option of adding the user to additional groups. (I.e enter floppy under the heading Supplementary groups and then Accept ) For a list of groups, the group names should be separated by a simple space. This tool will allow you to set default directories, shells, add rules about passwords, set e-mail aliases, group membership and disk quotas. One can modify or delete users from linuxconf as well.

• Set user password: After creating the user, use options Config + User accounts + Normal + User accounts.Select the user from the list. Then select the Passwd button.

This will allow you to enter an initial password for the account. • File Editing Method: - (as root) Edit files to add/remove a user • Create user entry in /etc/passwd user:x:505:505:Mr.

Dude User:/home/user:/bin/bash • Create group: /etc/group user:x:505: • Create home directory: cd /home mkdir user • Copy default files: cp -pR /etc/skel/. /home/user chown -R user.user /home/user • The creation of /etc/shadow and /etc/gshadow require the execution of a program to encrypt passwords. Use the commands and to synchronize the shadow files. • Assign a password: user • Also see: • Shadow integrity verification: [-r] [group shadow] • File editor:. Note: • For every user ID text string there is an associated UID integer. See the third ':' delimited field in the file /etc/passwd.

• The 'Linux Standard Base' pecification states that IDs 0 to 99 should be statically allocated by the system and that user IDs from 100 to 499 should be reserved for dynamic allocation by system administrators and post install scripts using useradd. [] This is of course not completely realistic as it would limit Linux to 400 users. Red Hat/Fedora Linux distributions begin incrementing user UIDs from 500. By default the useradd command will increment by one for each new ID. • Large organizations need to think ahead when creating a new user. Autonomous systems are often eventually linked together to share files using NFS at a later date and have synchronization problems. The same user ID (text string) on two different systems may have different UIDs.

The problem this creates is when a file with one system can not be edited when accessed from the second system as the second system regard him as a different user because the system has a different UID. It is best to use the useradd '-u' option to assign users a UID integer associated with the text string ID. Many systems administrators use the employee ID as they know it will be unique across the corporation. Group GIDs can be assigned to department or division numbers.

This will allow smooth operation of connected systems. • NFS: For systems which will use NFS to share files, one can administer user accounts to make creation, editing and ownership of files seamless and consistent.

Look at the file /etc/passwd on the file server which you will mount to determine the user ID number and group ID number. User1:x:505:505:Joe Hacker:/home/user1:/bin/bash User-ID: User-ID-Number: Group-ID-Number: comment:/home/ User-ID-Home-Directory: default-shell Add a user to the system which matches. This will allow files generated on the file server to match ownership of those generated on the client system. [root]# useradd -u User-ID-Number -g Group-ID-Number User-ID Ideally you would configure an NIS or LDAP authentication server so that login id's and group id's would reside on one server.

This tip is for separate autonomous systems or for systems using different authentication servers which are sharing files using NFS. This tip also can also apply to smbmounted MS/Windows shares. • Default settings for new users are stored in /etc/skel/. To modify default.bash_logout.bash_profile.bashrc.gtkrc.kde/ configuration files for new users, make the changes here. • Also see the. SELinux security policies and context: Security Enhanced Linux (SELinux) enhancements developed by the US Federal National Security Agency (NSA) are included with Fedora Core beginning with version 3 and Red Hat Enterprise Linux version 4. The fine-grained access control architecture is supported in the Linux kernel.

Both 'type' enforcement and Role Based Access Control (RBAC) are supported. System processes and files (including socket descriptors, IPC's, devices.) are each assigned a collection of security attributes known as a security context. Security Goals: • Protect the system from the users • Protect the users from each other • Protect the files from scripts/programs The following RPM packages comprise SELinux: • selinux-policy-strict • selinux-policy-strict-sources: Configuration files • selinux-policy-targeted • selinux-policy-targeted-sources: Configuration files • libselinux: Library which provides a set of interfaces for security-aware applications to get and set process and file security contexts. • selinux-doc Configuration file: /etc/selinux/config # This file controls the state of SELinux on the system.

# SELINUX= can take one of these three values: # enforcing - SELinux security policy is enforced. # permissive - SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing. # disabled - SELinux is fully disabled. SELINUX=enforcing # SELINUXTYPE= type of policy in use.

Possible values are: # targeted - Only targeted network daemons are protected. # strict - Full SELinux protection. Operating as root: (System Administrator) If you are planning to administer the system, one would login as root to perform the tasks. In many instances one would be logged in as a user and wish to perform some 'root' sys-admin tasks. Here is how: • Switch user account to root: Shell/command mode: - and then you will be prompted to enter the root password.

• GUI mode: • Allow console to be accessed by another user from same system: +localhost • Switch user and then you will be prompted to enter the root password: su - • Set environment variable for GUI sessions so that display used is local display. (Remember X-windows is a network enables windowing system) export DISPLAY=:0.0 • Launch GUI application. Note: The su command was issued with a trailing '-' which means that the login process will follow the login steps of the user and will execute its profiles. Since no user id was given, the default is root user. This all would be equivalent to: su - root Some systems may be configured so that only the switch user (su) command may be required without all of the X-window configuration. APT/dpkg - Ubuntu / Debian Package Manager: dpkg: Ubuntu/Debian package management. (equivalent to rpm in functionality.) Command Description dpkg -l List all packages installed on system.

Often used with grep: dpkg -l grep partial-name-of-package dpkg -l package-name Show version of package and description if package is installed. Dpkg -L package-name List all files on the system associated with the package. Dpkg -S file-name List the package name to which this file is associated. Dpkg -p file-name Print package information.

See /var/lib/dpkg/available dpkg -i package-name.deb Install package. Also see ' apt-get install package-name'. Dpkg -r package-name Remove package. Keep configuration files. Also see ' apt-get remove package-name'.

Dpkg -P package-name Remove package. Remove configuration files. Also see ' apt-get remove package-name'.

Dpkg -c package-name.deb List all files to be installed and the proposed installed location. Dpkg -s package-name.deb List status of package (version, description. Apt-get: Ubuntu/Debian package installer using an internet repository. (equivalent to yum in functionality.) Command Description apt-get install package-name apt-get install package-1, package-2 Query repository for package and if package is available, download and install.

Apt-get remove package-name Remove package from system. Keeps configuration files. Use flag '--purge' to remove configuration files. Apt-get -s update or apt-get --simulate update Simulate apt-get actions to be taken but no action is performed. In this example, apt-get simulates an update.

Apt-get update Update the package index on the system to the latest version associated with the OS release in use. Only the index (package list) is changed. An update should always be performed before an upgrade apt-get -s upgrade The command will identify all packages to be upgraded without performing an upgrade. Stop any services targeted for upgrade before perfoming the upgrade.

Apt-get upgrade Upgrade all packages on the system to the newest versions of all the packages. The command will first identify all packages to be upgraded and then with permission, will perform an upgrade on the packages. Use flag '-y' to grant permission and avoid question. Typical use: apt-get update apt-get upgrade apt-get dist-upgrade Upgrade the OS and all packages on the system to the newest version. Eg upgrade from version 11.10 (Oneiric Ocelot) to 12.04 (Precise Pangolin).

Typical use: apt-get update apt-get dist-upgrade apt-get source package-name Download package source. Apt-get build-dep package-name Configure build-dependencies for source packages. Uses the configuration file: /etc/apt/apt.conf Uses the repository source list: /etc/apt/sources.list deb dapper main restricted deb-src dapper main restricted ## Major bug fix updates produced after the final release of the ## distribution. Deb dapper-updates main restricted deb-src dapper-updates main restricted ## Uncomment the following two lines to add software from the 'universe' ## repository. Software from this repository is ENTIRELY UNSUPPORTED by the Ubuntu ## team, and may not be under a free licence. Please satisfy yourself as to ## your rights to use the software.

Also, please note that software in ## universe WILL NOT receive any review or updates from the Ubuntu security ## team. Deb dapper universe deb-src dapper universe ## Uncomment the following two lines to add software from the 'backports' ## repository. Software from this repository may not have been tested as ## extensively as that contained in the main release, although it includes ## newer versions of some applications which may provide useful features. ## Also, please note that software in backports WILL NOT receive any review ## or updates from the Ubuntu security team.

#deb dapper-backports main restricted universe multiverse #deb-src dapper-backports main restricted universe multiverse deb dapper-security main restricted deb-src dapper-security main restricted # deb dapper-security universe # deb-src dapper-security universe [Potential Pitfall]: A new installation requires use of the command: apt-get update before apt-get will work. [Potential Pitfall]: If you add a new repository you must execute the command: apt-get update. Attempting to install a package ( apt-get install xxxxxxx) from a new archive without first updating, will give you the following error message: Package xxxxxxx is not available, but is referred to by another package. This may mean that the package is missing, has been obsoleted, or is only available from another source E: Package mplayer has no installation candidate Where 'xxxxxxx' is the package you were trying to install.

Other: Command Description apt-cache search package-name Query repositories to see if package is available. Also see the man pages for: dpkg, dselect, apt-get, apt-cache, apt-cdrom (add CD-Rom to sources list), apt-config. RPM - Redhat Package Manager: The rpm command is used to manage software applications and system modules for Red Hat, Fedora, CentOS, Suse and many other Linux distributions. Step One: Import Red Hat and Fedora GPG signature keys: View your public key: (RHEL5) [root@yoserver2 ~]# rpm -qa gpg-pubkey gpg-pubkey-ed5f7f3 [root@yoserver2 ~]# rpm -qi gpg-pubkey-ed5f7f3.

(Thus already installed. Your system is ready.) Remove your public key: (RHEL5) [root@yoserver2 ~]# rpm -e gpg-pubkey-ed5f7f3 Install public key: (Red Hat package up2date - now depricated. Use YUM.) [root@yoserver2 ~]# rpm --import /usr/share/rhn/RPM-GPG-KEY [root@yoserver2 ~]# rpm --import /usr/share/rhn/RPM-GPG-KEY-fedora Do this once to configure RPM so that you won't constantly get the warning message that the signature is 'NOKEY'. The purpose is to protect you from using a corrupt or hacked RPM. Once these command are performed, you are ready to use the RPM command.

(This is also required for the YUM commands below.) Note: Many GPG public keys for other RPM packages (i.e. MySQL: 0x5072E1F5), can be obtained from. (The following RPM installation warning will inform you of the key to obtain: warning: MySQL- XXXX.rpm: V3 DSA signature: NOKEY, key ID 5072e1f5) Importing a new key from key server: • gpg --keyserver keyserver.veridis.com --recv-key 5072e1f5 • gpg --export -a 5072e1f5 >pubkey_mysql.asc • rpm --import pubkey_mysql.asc Step Two: RPM commands and their use RPM Command Description rpm -qilp program_package-ver.rpm Query for information on package and list destination of files to be installed by the package. You can also use the Gnome GUI program file-roller to view and read the contents of an RPM. Great tool for inspecting an RPM package and reading the package documentation before you decide to install the package. Automated System Updates: up2date (Red Hat 7.1 and later) Select the red dot and exclamation mark icon on the toolbar to launch up2date and follow the GUI.

One may also use the command line if managing a remote server. Execute the following commands (in order given) to perform an automatic system update: • /usr/bin/rhn_register:You must first register your system with the Red Hat database. This command will perform a hardware inventory and reporting of your system so that Red Hat knows which software to load to match your needs. • /usr/bin/up2date-config:This allows you to configure the 'up2date' process. It allows you to define directories to use, actions to take (i.e.

Download updates, install or not install, keep RPM's after install or not), network access (i.e. Proxy configuration), use of GPG for package verification, packages or files to skip, etc. Use of GPG requires the Red Hat public key: rpm -import /usr/share/rhn/RPM-GPG-KEY • /usr/sbin/up2date:This command will perform an audit of RPM's on your system and discover what needs to be updated. It gives you a chance to unselect packages targeted for upgrade.

It will download RPM packages needed, resolve dependencies and perform a system update if requested. [Potential Pitfall]: This works quite well but it is not perfect. Red Hat 7.1 Apache upgrade to 1.3.22 changed the configuration completely. Manual clean-up and re-configuration is required). When up2date finds the first messed up dependency it stops to tells you. You then have to unselect the package. It then starts again from the beginning.

Installing a new package with up2date: up2date package-name The package name is given without the version number. If the package is not currently installed, it will be downloaded and installed, along with any dependencies that package requires. Command line options (partial list) for up2date: Option Description --nox Do not display the GUI interface.

-u --update Completely update the system -h --help Display command line arguments -v --verbose Print more info about what up2date is doing --showall Show a list of all packages available for your release of Red Hat Linux, including those not currently installed. Also see man pages for: • up2date-gnome • rhn_register-gnome Notes: • Update in console mode (no GUI): up2date --nox --update • Configuration file for up2date: /etc/sysconfig/rhn/up2date • System id and configuration info held in XML format for up2date: /etc/sysconfig/rhn/systemid • The default download directory for up2date is /var/spool/up2date/. RPM packages and support files are downloaded to this directory. • An automated alert to the need to update utilizes the rhnsd which can be started by issuing the command: /etc/rc.d/init.d/rhnsd start.

YUM/YUMEX: RPM Updates YUM (Yellowdog Updater, Modified) is a client command line application for updating an RPM based system from an internet repository (YUM ' yum-arch' server) accessible by URL (xxx, ftp:// yyy or even file:// zzz local or NFS). The YUM repository has a directory of the headers with RPM info and directory path information. YUM will resolve RPM package dependencies and manage the importation and installation of dependencies.

YUM is also capable of upgrading across releases. One can upgrade Red Hat Linux 7 and 8 to 9. Red Hat 8 and 9 can be upgraded to Fedora Core. Note that RHEL6 is the first release of the enterprise product which can be upgraded to the next release. Yum Configuration: YUM config file: /etc/yum.conf (CentOS 5) [main] cachedir=/var/cache/yum keepcache=0 debuglevel=2 logfile=/var/log/yum.log distroverpkg=redhat-release tolerant=1 exactarch=1 obsoletes=1 gpgcheck=1 plugins=1 bugtracker_url=# Note: yum-RHN-plugin doesn't honor this. Metadata_expire=1h installonly_limit = 5 # PUT YOUR REPOS HERE OR IN separate files named file.repo # in /etc/yum.repos.d You may list packages you wish NOT to update (Space delimited list.

'*' wildcards allowed.): exclude= package-name (i.e. On x86_64 I do not update firefox or mozplugger with the 64 bit version, I use the 32 bit version so that 32 bit plugins will work.) Set ' gpgcheck=0' to avoid the signature check. For the option ' gpgcheck=1' to work, use the ' rpm --import GPG-KEY commands as detailed. [root@server2 ~]# rpm --import /usr/share/rhn/RPM-GPG-KEY [root@server2 ~]# rpm --import /usr/share/rhn/RPM-GPG-KEY-fedora File: /etc/yum.repos.d/CentOS-Base.repo (CentOS 5) [base] name=CentOS-$releasever - Base mirrorlist=#baseurl=gpgcheck=1 gpgkey=file:///etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-CentOS-5 #released updates [updates] name=CentOS-$releasever - Updates mirrorlist=#baseurl=gpgcheck=1 gpgkey=file:///etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-CentOS-5. Mirror site/sites which contain base configuration RPM's are listed. Other protocols such as ftp can be used as well as http.

Terms: • releasever: Release Version - current version of Fedora. • basearch: Base Architecture - system hardware architecture i.e.

Yum Examples And Use: Using YUM and YUM examples: • Update: • List packages which will be updated: yum check-update (Does not perform an update) • Update all packages on your system: yum update • Update a package: yum update package-name • Update all with same prefix: yum update package-name-prefix * This command will update your system. It will interactively ask permission. Yum Groups: Groups go beyond packages and dependancies. It is a collective group of supporting (not dependent) packages and tools. List Yum groups available for installation: # yum grouplist Installed Groups: Administration Tools Authoring and Publishing Cluster Storage Clustering DNS Name Server Development Tools.

Available Groups: Beagle Development Libraries Eclipse Educational Software Electronic Lab Fedora Packager FreeNX and NX. Install a group (eg Web Server): yum groupinstall 'Web Server' Remove: yum groupremove 'Web Server'. RSYNC: Synchronizing files between two drives or two computers The command rsync helps the system administrator synchronize files on two separate computers.

This is ideal for web site maintenance. Rsync Examples: • match up and update a backup directory on the same system (eg a USB stick): rsync -av ~/Documents /media/KINGSTON • match up and update a backup directory on a different system: rsync -avr --rsh=/usr/bin/ssh ~/Documents userx@remote-server:/mnt/drive2 • using a file list to identify files: rsync -e ssh -p 777 --delete --include-from=files-to-sync.txt -avzu./ www. Your-domain.com: Test with flags -navzu File: files-to-sync.txt +index.html -README +webpage-1.html +webpage-2.html +webpage-3.html Files to include (+) and files which are excluded from synchronization (-).

Links: • - extensive tutorial on how to Copy, Mirror, Synchronize, Backup and Restore files • • • For more info see the.